Wireless Networking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Wireless Networking - Essay Example Individuals with desktop computers connected to Wide Area Networks (WANs) and Local Area Networks (LANs) in their places of work may need to be connected while away, which is literary impossible with the concept of wiring. Here is where wireless networking comes in. A wireless network is a system that receives and transmits radio signal through the air from one point to another. The term wireless network often refers to a Wi-Fi or 802.11 networking, from the protocols that control the wireless network concept (Kumar, Manjunath & Kuri 2). Wireless networks are consistently proving their worth in today’s world, with coverage of important services like FM radio, AM radio, satellite television, broadcast television, and satellite internet, which all form a basic part of our lives. The history of wireless networking discovery takes us back to 1888 when Heinrich Herz discovered the first radio wave. In the years that followed, other scholars were further developing the radio frequen cy concept. Marconi was the first known man to successfully transmit and receive a message using radio waves in a distance of two miles, labeling him the â€Å"father of radio†.... The resultant second generation WLAN was upgraded and was four times faster, with an operational speed of 2Mbps. Further developments led t the design on the third generation WLAN, which are in use currently (Kumar, Manjunath & Kuri 23). The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) 802 committee in 1990 set up the 820.11 Working Group that would be the foundation of the WLAN standard. Among the specifications of the standard was an operating frequency of 2.4GHz ISM band, and consequently approved the IEEE 802.11 to be the first WLAN standard with frequency of between 1and 2 Mbps. Building a wireless network will require an access point, which receives and sends radio signals, as well as acting like a repeater. Another vital device required in all the devices in the wireless network is the wireless network card. A desktop computer usually has an internal card, and may or may not have antennas. Notebooks have a PCMCIA extension slots for the card, if not installed from t he manufacturer. There are two basic forms of configuration for a wireless network: infrastructure and Ad-Hoc. An infrastructure wireless configuration constitutes more than one access point connections to an already existing single wireless network. This will enhance the sharing of resource among the devices in the network, like the internet and printers. Here, a computer acts like a hub that provides connectivity for the other computers in the network, hence connecting a wireless LAN to a wireless LAN (Kumar, Manjunath & Kuri 54). On the other hand, an Ad-Hoc wireless network configuration connects one device directly to another device on the network, hence the common reference to peer-to-peer network. All devices can connect directly to each other, but there must be one that is

Stephen King the Dead Zone Essay Example for Free

Stephen King the Dead Zone Essay What The Future Holds While Stephen King has rightfully garnered a reputation as a horror writer, some of his best fiction revolves around stories of everyday humanity affected by elements of the supernatural, such as the Dead Zone. After awakening from a five-year coma, John Smith has come back from the ether with a clairvoyance to see certain futures and hidden pasts of others by touch alone. Opting to use his powers for good, John is alled upon for such tasks as helping the police to catch a elusive rappist. hen he shakes hands with a political candidate at a rally, he sees a future where the candidate will start a nuclear holocaust as president. Leading John to the ultimate dilemma of potentially altering the future, and perhaps even losing his life in the process. While this is a novel about a supernatural ability, and how John lives after his accident as well as how other people around him react to him and his new ability s the theme of the novel. A reader feels for him because he comes out of his coma an altered man, alternately awed and feared by those who cannot understand what it is to receive an unwanted gift for psychic vision.. He wrestles with the possibly that assassinating the politican will lead to his probable death or his incarceration. Is the future he glimpsed even certain. The Dead Zone tackled issues to do with predestination, and what the future holds. Were things happening Just because Johnny was drawing attention to them because he thought they were going to happen, or would they have happened anyway? Should he tell people, or let nature run its course? And when he is driven to act on a vision that he thinks will affect the greater population, the big issues roll out. even if precognition probably isnt something we all need to dwell on, because King brings up other conundrums about human nature and other things for the reader to chew over.

Characteristics of a Good College Student Essay -- essays research pap

My name is Joshua I am a 20-year-old college sophomore at Georgia Perimeter College. I eat very well, which I have found is in complete contrast with my college peers. According to the National Health Awareness, has an overall average 30% for US colleges and Universities college students tend to skip one meal a day. Most college students don't even know what a healthy diet is, and a large percentage of students who are aware of proper nutrition choose to ignore it. One must have a good diet, learn to plan a good diet by sticking to a consistent routine, and stay away from fast food diet. At Georgia Perimeter College students are unaware of what exactly a good diet is, bad eating habits are unavoidable. The first step to a good diet is eating regular, well-balanced meals. So I found out that the Food Pyramid Guide is the simplest way of balancing my meals. It separates foods into groups and graphs the amount of each group needed in an average person's diet. Students who desire to improve their bad eating habits should study the Food Pyramid Guide. Along with the Food Pyramid Guide, proper consumption of water, vitamins, and minerals is a very important part of a good diet. The Food and Drug Administration recommend 8 glasses of water a day equal to about 1 pound a day. I, along with most of my peers, have a problem consuming this massive amount of tasteless water. Tea and juice can help fill this quota. One of the major problems I have found at my college students diets, as far as beverage consumption, is coke and greasy food. College students are attracted to coke be cause it is easily accessible, cheap, and tasty. Coke may be convenient, but it is not part of a good diet. It is full of sodium, sugar, and caffeine. Dehydration i... ...students have is with fat-free snacks. All low-fat foods have something to replace the fat. That replacement is usually made by sugar, which is high in calories. So, snacking on Snack Well's Devil Chocolate Brownies rather than Chips Ahoy Chocolate Chip Cookies is not watching the diet. Or maybe Mac Donald or Pizza either one is increasing your chance of staying unfit and unhealthy. One tip that I have found that works well for my college life is that I only keep healthy snacks in my locker. Granola bars, baked chips, and fat-free popcorn are a few examples. My favorite module is if I do not have it, I cannot consume it. A second tip- before I eat I think about it. I also ask myself am I really hungry. I often avoid impulse snacking by simply asking myself these two questions. These are just a few easy steps that college students can use to avoid bad eating habits.

Attitude Towards Love in Valentine and The Flea Essay -- Poetry Poems

Through Close Analysis of Language, Structure and Theme, Compare and Contrast the Poet's Attitude Towards Love in Valentine and The Flea. The two poems "Valentine" and "The Flea" are about the two different ways in which the poets portray their views about love, however the poems are still linked in a few ways. "The Flea was published in the seventeenth century and was written by 'John Donne'. "Valentine" was published in 1983 and was written by 'Carol Ann Duffy'. Both poems are addressed to an unknown lover. The poem "Valentine" is written in free-verse form. Carol Ann Duffy could have used this irregular pattern because of the irregular present that she is giving to her lover. "Not a red rose or satin heart. I give you an onion." When you first read the poem you think that an onion is an absurd present to give to a lover but after analysis, you realise that she is trying to portray a message to us: It is not what is on the outside that counts. Duffy uses quite a lot of imagery in her poem to explain her message to the reader. "It is a moon wrapped in brown paper." This could be referring to the moon as a pure object that you first have to unwrap and explore before you can find the real meaning of it. It is also linking back to her point that it may look a bit unromantic from the outside but it is really what is inside that counts. She could be saying this because of her lover's attitude towards women. Maybe the lover only thinks about what the people look like, not what they really are is like inside. Duffy then comments on the emotional feelings that love could bring into a relationship. "It will blind you with tears like a lover." When you cut an onion it makes you cry, and usually... ...lood from his lover and that is what all fleas do. Donne then again emphasises the idea that now because of the flea's death some life has been taken from his lover. "Will waste, as this flea's death took life from thee." This puts forward the idea of some life being taken from his lover because part of her was contained inside the flea. At first the two poems appear very different but after close inspection links can be established between the two poems. I think Carol Ann Duffy's poem is the more serious of the two as she is using an unusual item to portray her feelings for her lover. John Donne is just worried about getting his lover into to bed using the idea of the flea instead of wanting to portray his feelings towards his lover. He is too overconfident with himself that he will get the girl into bed with him when in the end he doesn't succeed.

Fiji Water Analysis Essay

Introduction Corporations like FIJI Water are forced into having Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). Corporate Social Responsibility is the idea that businesses need to give back to society as much as they take away. Although companies like FIJI Water produce some type of product for consumers, in this circumstance water, they are compelled to give back as much as they take away. The issue companies have to deal with is whether they really have CSR, or if they are just green washing to make people believe they are socially responsible. â€Å"The 10th Edition of the Concise Oxford English Dictionary recognizes the word â€Å"greenwash,† defining it as, â€Å"’Disinformation disseminated by an organization so as to present an environmentally responsible public image.†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Environmentalist make it their job to eliminate any green washing by bringing to light companies negative impact on society and proving outrageous claims to be over exaggerated or completely false. Environmentalists compel companies to reduce, if not eliminate their carbon footprint on society through exposing how wasteful they are to society. Every company in order to be successful has to recognize this issue and do their best to resolve it, otherwise their company will tank. Companies like FIJI Water have to walk the fine line of CSR and green washing. FIJI Water LLC, has proved to be a tough competitor in the market of selling bottled water. They have overcome trials and set-backs and have kept their image of a premium quality brand of water. They have done their very best to become socially responsible over the years and had to use the idea of green washing to exploit their product. How FIJI Water Came to Be FIJI Water was started in 1996 by David Gilmour, one-time partner in Clairtone Sound Corporation Limited. FIJI Water is a U.S.-based business and brand of bottled water derived, bottled, and shipped from the Fiji Islands. It is available in 330ml, 500ml, 1 liter and 1.5 liter bottles.  According to marketing materials, the water comes from an artesian aquifer in the Yaqara Valley of Viti Levu. A good way to identify what FIJI Water is all about is in their mission statement which reads, â€Å"FIJI Water, the world’s finest water, is committed to quality and excellence in our product, people, profitability, and strategic partners. We are dedicated to communicating the passion and unique properties of our brand to consumers worldwide and continuing to invest in the future while preserving and cherishing the pristine source.† They have marketed their product towards wealthy people who could afford to pay more to drink water. Their main marketing drive was that the product was far from pollution, acid rain, and industrial waste in the island nation of Fiji. The way their product differed from other water bottling companies is that the FIJI Water was drawn from an artesian aquifer that lies hundreds of feet below a primitive rainforest. The idea being that distance and isolation is part of what makes FIJI Water so much purer and richer in taste than other bottled waters. Corporate Social Responsibility FIJI Water has a few marketing and CSR campaigns to help address the issue of social responsibility and to give their product more attention. FIJI water was seen as being extremely wasteful. To take a naturally occurring product like water and use the resources to ship it half way across the world was thought to be â€Å"water insanity†. â€Å"In response to this protest, the company launched a new promotion campaign under a slogan â€Å"every drop is green,† only to be immediately accused by environmentalist groups of engaging in green washing activities.† At the same time that this was happening, FIJI focused on its contributions to the local communities in Fiji. As environmentalists’ criticism increased over the years, FIJI Water LLC launched a â€Å"carbon negative campaign, claiming that it was the first bottle water company to release carbon footprint of its products.† This was part of their push towards the slogan â€Å"every drop is green†. The Company estimated its total annual carbon footprint at 85,396 metric tons of CO2eq.  They were also able to calculate their carbon emissions at each stage of the product from production to distribution. They started at the production of raw material to running the plant, to getting it to the markets, to even refrigerating the product. It did this to try and eliminate as much carbon footprints as possible. The VP of the company, Mooney, argued that, â€Å"the only way consumers can turn their environmental intentions into good decisions is to give them the information they need regarding the emissions with the products they buy.† This made customers aware that they were actively looking at their operations and doing something about it. To most people, it didn’t really matter what, as long as they were trying. Sustainability The results of their work were impressive. They were able to accomplish the following: reduction in packaging by 20 percent, supplying 50 percent of the energy used at its bottling plant with renewable energy, optimizing logistics to be more carbon-efficient in transportation, restoring grasslands in the Yaqara Valley by planting trees, and supporting recycling programs for plastic PET bottles. With their new image as a socially responsible company they were more sustainable in the fact that they were giving back. They summed up their operations in a PR pitch: a sale of every bottle of FIJI Water would result in a net reduction of carbon in the atmosphere! The question remains, are they giving back enough? To ship a naturally occurring product half way across the world seems pretty ridiculous to those who care about our earth’s resources being wasted. Green Washing Conservation group didn’t buy it. This absurd claim, along with â€Å"every drop is green† was green washing at its finest so they thought. In Section 53 of the Commonwealth Trade Practices Act 1974 it prohibits a corporation from representing that â€Å"goods or services have sponsorship, approval, performance characteristics, accessories, uses or benefits they do not have.† They were in direct violation of this. The Greenwash Brigade were some of the most professional environmentalist that were known for exposing this kind of  behavior. In June 2008, they published an article titled â€Å"Fiji Water by the numbers,† which summarized the terrible environmental impact of the company. Some facts that came out of that were that there were 5,500 miles per trip from Fiji to Los Angeles, 46 million gallons of fossil fuel, 1.3 billion gallons of water used, 216 million pounds of greenhouse gases emitted. These were staggering amounts of energy, water, and fuel being used, especially for something that is naturally occurring! The Impact of the Nay-Sayers These conservationists had a big impact on the company in forming who they are today. Without bringing this information to light, nothing would be changed. They would just fly under the radar without being criticized. We need the nay-sayers to motivate companies to change so they won’t use up our limited resources. The fact of the matter is that every drop of FIJI Water is not green, every drop is imported! These environmentalist help prevent green washing and provide important research behind their accusations of companies. In 2007, Pablo Paster, an engineer and MBA, undertook a thorough and exhaustive study of the cost of bringing a liter of FIJI Water to America. His study found that, â€Å"In summary, the transport of that one kilogram bottle of Fiji water consumed 26.88 kilograms of water (7.1 gallons), .849 kilograms of fossil fuel (one liter or .26 gallons) and emitted 562 grams of Greenhouse Gases (1.2 pounds).† One can only imagine the effect that has on our en vironment. Conclusion Overall, Fiji was able to show flexibility in changing for the times. They established credibility among the community through addressing concerns of others. At first they tried to hide from the answers needed by consumers and conservationists and even used some green washing to help get their product through the tough, trying times. They used the idea of green washing to their benefit by making outrageous claims that had to be proven false initially, but in time they held to it as best they could. They had to be vague at first, but later specified their goal in operations. Comparatively to most companies, FIJI Water has a great Corporate Social Responsibility in that they have done significant things to try and eliminate their carbon footprint through efficiency and planting more trees. Going forward, the company will have a hard time living up to becoming a carbon negative company. They need to keep on their path of fulfilling promises made to invest in renewable energy equipment and to off-set that with continuing to plant trees abroad. FIJI Water has especially helped the local community surrounding Fiji. They have established good CSR with the five neighboring villages. They have supported children’s educations in helping them get a good start. In pre-schools they have provided equipment, educational material, teacher training and other support. In March 2002, the company voluntarily established an independently administrated community development trust fund and allocated FJ$275,000 to it. That is a great use of their resources. They also support village projects to improve hygiene and sanitation as well as provide portable drinking water. FIJI Water is a benefit to society as a whole. They have used their resources to give back to our planet and help others in need. More ——————————————– [ 1 ]. James McMaster and Jan Nowak, â€Å"FIJI Water and Corporate Social Responsibility – Green Makeover or â€Å"Greenwashing†?, May 2009, Ivey Management Services. [ 2 ]. N.A., â€Å"FIJI Water,† http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiji_Water#History, 2012. [ 3 ]. N.A., â€Å"Mission Statement,† http://www.fijiwater.com/company/company-timeline/, N.D. [ 4 ]. Ibid. [ 5 ]. James McMaster and Jan Nowak, â€Å"FIJI Water and Corporate Social Responsibility – Green Makeover or â€Å"Greenwashing†?, May 2009, Ivey Management Services. [ 6 ]. â€Å"FIJI Water Becomes First Bottled Water Company to Release Carbon Footprint of Its Products,† April 9, 2008, www.bevnet.com [ 7 ]. Ibid. [ 8 ]. Ibid. [ 9 ]. â€Å"FIJI Water Becomes First Bottled Water Company to Release Carbon Footprint of Its Products,† FIJI Water Press Release, Los Angeles, April 9, 2008, www.bevnet.com. [ 10 ]. James McMaster and Jan Nowak, â€Å"FIJI Water and Corporate Social Responsibility – Green Makeover or â€Å"Greenwashing†?, May 2009, Ivey Management Services. [ 11 ]. Heidi Sigelbaum, â€Å"Fiji Water by the numbers,† June 6, 2008. [ 12 ]. www.treehugger.com/files/2007/02/pablo_calculate.php [ 13 ]. McMaster and Nowak, â€Å"Natural Waters of Viti Limited – Pioneering a New Industry in the Fiji Islands.†

Abortion Subject

The topic of women having abortions can be an intense subject. This subject has always been a debate because the people of society cannot agree on weather â€Å"abortions† are right or wrong. In this paper I will give multiple reasons why abortions should be legal for women to have. Abortions are legal and should remain legal because women should have the right to decide what happens with their bodies; some women that become pregnant are not ready emotionally or financially to be mothers; and abortions is the best answer for an unwanted pregnancy. It’s a woman choice I agree abortions should be legal because not all women can afford to take care of a child or give them the necessities they need. I also believe this choice should be up to women. This is the same with any medical procedure, if a person was to have a tumor while pregnant and it was life threatening, what you will choose to do save the baby or the woman. This is where abortions come in. People need not to look at this like a disease and start treating abortions like any other medical procedure. According to the Washington Post NBC/WSJ polls find that, on the 40 anniversary of the Supreme Court’s Roe v. Wade decision, 70 percent of Americans want the landmark abortions rights ruling to stay (Weiner, 2013). Indeed, as we learned from study there are more people who agree to keep this order in place for woman. This alone says it is a safe procedure if done right by experienced physician. Keeping abortions legal is the right choice because this is something that helps women have a choice on what to do with unwanted or unsafe pregnancies. While abortions can offer ways to help women with any kind of issues they may go through while pregnant, another important information women need to know is be safe and observe the physicians to ensure they are well qualified physicians. Pros of an abortion There are plenty of pros when it comes to this topic. Abortions are not as negative as everyone might want to think. Abortions are done in the case of women being raped; there are very few women that really want to keep their child in cases like this. Is abortion such a terrible thing in this situation? I do not think so. Doing research on this topic there are pros to legal abortions, study show A woman’s right to choose abortion is a fundamental right† recognized by the U. S Supreme Court. The landmark abortion case Roe v. Wade was decided on January 22, 1973, and remains the law of the land (ProCon. org, 2013). Certainly, there are people that do not agree with abortions and never will, but one person’s opinions should not affect other decisions. Although people say abortions are wrong and it’s killing another human being, it’s also important to remember why abortions are necessary. In cases abortions are not done for malicious intent, but in some cases they are done to save the life of women. Cons of abortions Where there are pros there are cons to any subject or topic. On the topic should abortions be legal, many say there are some cons that others do not believe. With this topic people will never be 100 percent comfortable. The only con I believe is getting the procedure done wrong by an unprofessional doctor that will lead to death and not by an experience doctor, nurse, or physicians to ensure your health. For example, study says† women should use contraceptives not abortion, to avoid unwanted pregnancies. A center for Disease Control and prevention study show that 19-25% of women who received abortions in 2006 had previously had one or more abortions. If abortions were not available, women would use preventable measures (ProCon. org, 2013). Having a negative attitude about abortions will lead to not looking at the positive sides of having a abortion. Seeing these kinds of negative impact puts a negative influence on others and confuses others about what is right for them and their body. After reading study, I have to say I disagree, just because woman have abortions and they are available does not mean all woman abuse the system. For example if a woman is raped she should have used protection to prevent her from getting pregnant. That does not make sense. Whose to say why women have abortions, society just follow the number of abortions and studies which can be misleading at times. What’s the risk of abortions? I personally believe in abortions but I also know there are health risks when having abortions. Currently in the United States over the years there have been a number of abortions happening. There is risk at everything we do, like including abortions. To avoid such risks according to study† currently in the United States, a patch work of state regulations determines who can provide abortions with several states specifically prohibiting non-physician clinicians from performing the procedure (News RX, 2013). Indeed, having educated nurses and other health physician handling patients that has had or is contemplating an abortion is the safest thing to do to ensure all women are cared for correctly while having this procedure. If people don’t take abortions seriously then people can have false information about this issue. This will lead to unsafe conditions do to abortions. Increasing the types of health care professionals who can provide early aspiration abortions care is one way to reduce this health care disparity (News RX, 3013). While there are risks to having an abortions the rate of abortions has fell 29% between 1990-2005 from 27. 4 to 19. 4 this is not counting the level cut from 2005-2008 (ProCon. org, 2013). With this being said the rate of abortions are continuing to fall which is a positive thing. Abortions help saves lives According to (Planned Parenthood) legal abortions protect women’s health. For tens of thousands of women with heart disease, kidney disease, severe hypertension, sickle cell anemia and severe diabetes, and other illnesses that can be life threathing, the availability of legal abortions has helped avert serious medical complications that would have resulted from childbirth (Planned Parenthood, 2006). Reasons why abortion should be legal If abortions were not legal, than women would have no options for an unwanted child. Let’s talk about unwanted children. For one every child wants to be wanted, and loved by someone. If women are forced to carry unwanted pregnancies to term, the outcome would be society has unloved, unwanted children having abandonments issues. This is another problem of its own. Again this is why I personally believe abortions should be legal. What abortion does is help some women who are not ready to be mothers financially and or emotionally. We all know that women have abortions for many different reasons even if society disagrees on this issue of abortion. Also abortions are a way to keep some of our children from having to grow up financially and emotionally deprived. Everyone looks at abortions as if it’s an easy task,† don’t want the child go have an abortions†. For some it’s not that easy and the reasoning behind having an abortion is not that easy either. It’s important not to judge someone for their actions and to not really know the reason as to why some women have made this choice. Reasons As I said before women have abortions for many different reasons. One may be because it wasn’t planned, â€Å"what some would call an accidental pregnancy†. Another reason could be in the case of rape. Majority of women would not want to be reminded of that kind of experience so abortion should be an option. Another reason is what if the baby had a birth defect that caused harm for the baby and the mother. Again abortion should be an option or even in the case of incest. I don’t think any women would want to keep a baby by someone from their own family they have known them their whole lives and that has raised them as a child. You have to be a very strong woman to go through these things, and there are plenty in our world. Having a child and being a parent are two different things if you look at it. Being a parent is someone who is going to guide you, nurture you, and loves you unconditionally, who provides and protects you. Now having a child any woman can do that. But for some they do not want or cannot do for their child/children. Having a child is a major responsibility financially, psychologically, and morally. Raising a child demands time, patients, effort, a sane mind and can’t forget money.

Differential Pricing and Segmentation on the International Hotel

Differential pricing and segmentation on the Internet: the case of hotels Rama Yelkur Assistant Professor of Marketing, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, Eau Claire, USA Maria Manuela Neveda DaCosta A Professor of Economics, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, Eau Claire, USA Hotels, Service industries, Pricing, Segmentation, Loyalty, Internet Keywords Introduction In the 1950s, marketers discovered that, if they gave their customers what they wanted Abstract and did it better than the competition, their In the ever-changing electronic sales grew.With the advent of the Internet, environment of the twenty-first marketers have access to the technology to century, price is one of the key customize products and communicate strategic elements that is often overlooked by firms. The paper directly with smaller target markets. The addresses differential pricing in Internet is now firmly established as a business-to-consumer electronic marketing tool. It serves as an integral part commerce, in particular of the marketing mix, serving as a digital differential pricing for hotel services sold on the Internet. istribution channel as well as an electronic Hotels are able to take advantage storefront. of differential pricing for various When a firm establishes a presence on the segments because the market for Internet, its marketing activities, including hotels can be divided into narrow customer segments. An overview advertising, pricing, and distribution, should of e-commerce and Internet reflect characteristics unique to the medium marketing is provided. The to help consumers realize the value added characteristics of products sold over traditional methods. online and differential pricing are discussed.Pricing policies for onConsumers in the Internet medium are line marketing are examined with more than just passive recipients in the a special emphasis on differential marketing process (Hoffman et al. , 1995). The pricing, customer loyalty and Internet is an interactive medium as opposed segmentation. With the help of secondary data, online pricing to traditional marketing which usually strategies used by hotels on the allows only one-way communication (Peters, Internet are evaluated.Finally, 1998; Sandelands, 1997) from marketer to conclusions are drawn and implications for the hotel industry consumer. re discussed. Many diverse vendors, from florists to manufacturers of durable goods, as well as service providers such as airlines and hotels have rushed to do business on the Internet. In order to effectively market on the World Wide Web (the Web), companies need to evaluate the basic components of the marketing mix: product, price, place, and promotion. In the ever-changing electronic environment of the twenty-first century, firms must identify and sustain competitive advantage in order to survive. Price is one of the key strategic elements that is often overlooked by firms (Yelkur and Herbig, 1997).In the on-line setting, companies have the oppo rtunity to utilize price to build competitive advantage by enhancing customer satisfaction and loyalty by meeting Management Decision 39/4 [2001] 252 ±261 # MCB University Press [ISSN 0025-1747] The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www. emerald-library. com/ft the demands of specific segments which have the potential to improve the firm's profit position. How much impact is the Internet really having on the market mix, especially pricing?Is it changing the approach to pricing or is it merely complementing traditional pricing practices? Our paper addresses differential pricing and segmentation in business-to-consumer electronic commerce, in particular differential pricing for hotel services sold online. The consumer segments in the hotel industry are based on usage, situation, and frequency of use. Hotels are able to take advantage of differential pricing for various segments because the market for hotels can be divided into specific custom er segments (Awh, 1998; Yelkur and Herbig, 1997).The more specific the segment, the easier it is to estimate demand; the knowledge of demand is essential to adopting a differential pricing strategy. This paper is organized as follows: An overview of e-commerce and Internet marketing is provided. The characteristics of products sold online and differential pricing are discussed. Pricing policies for online marketing are examined with a special emphasis on differential pricing. The importance of customer loyalty and segmentation and their relationship to differential pricing on the Internet are emphasized.With the help of secondary data, online pricing strategies used by hotels on the Internet are evaluated. Finally, conclusions are drawn and implications for the hotel industry are discussed. The growth of e-commerce Business conducted over the Internet is commonly referred to as electronic commerce or e-commerce. E-commerce is changing the way firms do business. In 1999, e-commerce t ransactions accounted for over $150 billion in sales and it is predicted that this amount will increase to $3 trillion by the year 2003 (The Economist, 2000). E-commerce [ 252 ]Rama Yelkur and Maria Manuela Neveda A DaCosta Differential pricing and segmentation on the Internet: the case of hotels Management Decision 39/4 [2001] 252 ±261 transactions come in many forms. Table I displays an e-commerce matrix that illustrates the difference among these various types of transactions by giving examples: Business-to-business transactions still account for 80 percent of all e-commerce business but consumer-to-consumer, consumer-to-business, and business-toconsumer (the object of this study) transactions are expected to grow astronomically in the next decade.According to an Internet consulting firm (Forrester Research, as cited in The Economist (2000)), business-to-consumer trade in the USA amounted to about $20 billion in 1999 and could reach $184 billion by 2004, which is about 5 percen t of USA's retail trade. Product characteristics that facilitate Internet marketing Some areas of retailing and commerce may be particularly well suited for the Internet, given certain characteristics (see Table II). For business-to-consumer marketing, as proposed by Peterson et al. 1997), products and services in the context of the Internet can be classified on the basis of: . cost and frequency of purchase; . value proposition; and . differentiability. Products can vary from low cost, frequently purchased goods (ex: coffee), to high-cost, infrequently purchased goods (ex: car). In general, for goods for which purchase fulfillment requires physical delivery in a short time, the Internet is not an appropriate mode of delivery (Peterson et al. , 1997).For an industry such as hotels, where a transaction can be completed without physical delivery of the product and the frequency of purchase is relatively low and the cost is relatively high (when compared with consumables such as coffee ), the Internet is a more efficient medium for firms to use to conduct business. The suitability of the Internet also depends on the tangibility of the product. Internet marketing is practically well suited for certain types of services. For example, it is now widely used for banking and other financial services.When the value proposition is intangible and the frequency of use higher, the greater is the advantage of the Internet as a transaction and distribution medium. The transport and delivery of the goods are an important consideration. Clearly, it is easier to sell lighter goods over the Internet than bulky and heavy ones. Then, there are those that can be delivered electronically like software, music, and certain services like banking, insurance, travel and hotels. The 1999 top-ranking products in the US market in terms of online transactions were computer hardware/ software, travel, financial brokerages, and collectables.In fact, intangible or symbolic information products su ch as airline tickets or hotel reservations gain tangibility on the Internet medium. Internet marketing can result in extreme price competition when products are similar, because other factors that moderate competition (ex: store location) are absent. However, when products and services are capable of significant differentiation, the Internet can serve as a method of segmenting consumers and directing them toward the appropriate product or service, as is the case Characteristics of Internet marketingThe Internet represents an extremely efficient medium for accessing, organizing, and communicating information. As such, the Internet subsumes communication technologies ranging from the written and spoken word to visual images. Internet marketing is one of the newest distribution channels marketers use to reach the customer. It is different from traditional channels in that it is also a communication network. Like all communication networks, the Internet is all about establishing and re inforcing connections between people.The Internet has been growing rapidly in the second half of the 1990s and today it is available in approximately 38 percent of US households (Nielsen Media Research, 2000). No medium including television has reached the 50 million-user mark in four years (Strauss and Frost, 1999). The integration of the Internet as a technological tool as well as a delivery medium with traditional marketing has transformed the processes firms use with which to conduct business. Table I The e-commerce matrix Business Business B2B GM/Ford EDI networks C2B Priceline Accompany Consumer B2C Amazon E*trade C2C EBay QXLConsumer Source: The Economist, 2000 [ 253 ] Rama Yelkur and Maria Manuela Neveda A DaCosta Differential pricing and segmentation on the Internet: the case of hotels Management Decision 39/4 [2001] 252 ±261 in the hotel industry. The â€Å"hotel† product is relatively expensive, infrequently purchased, has an intangible value proposition, and rat es high on differentiation from competing products. As a result, sellers are able to charge a higher price based on the match between the buyer's needs and the nature of the product offering.In a traditional setting, such personalization would turn out to be relatively expensive. Yelkur and Herbig (1997), are explained below: Select a target market The broad target market for a business is already chosen when the product is positioned. The firm needs to divide its broad target market into smaller segments. Differential pricing The model of price discrimination or differential pricing used by Cannon and Morgan (1990) provides an important analytical insight into many discriminatory pricing practices.The prices charged by a firm practicing differential pricing are usually not proportional to the marginal costs incurred in producing the service. When firms adjust their prices according to customer, location or product, they are said to follow the strategy of segmented pricing or differ ential pricing (Strauss and Frost, 1999). It is not unusual for businesses to offer varying prices for consumers by age group, for example, senior citizen discounts. In addition, customers can be differentiated based on customer type, for example, the business customer versus the individual customer.Businesses can also offer different prices for products based on location; for example, the pricing of a hotel room in San Francisco, California, would be different from a similar room in Phoenix, Arizona. Finally, firms frequently price products differently not necessarily based on cost, but rather on the willingness to pay. For example, firstclass airline tickets are always priced much higher than economy fares (Strauss and Frost, 1999). In summary, segmented pricing can be based on three major factors: customer type, location of product or service, and product or service offering.It is also possible to customize prices based on the profile provided by the customer, as is the case for hotel services sold online. The five steps a firm must take to achieve a differential pricing policy, as illustrated by The essence of any customer service strategy is to segment the customer to be served. It is important to differentiate between market segmentation and customer service segmentation. Customer service segments differ from traditional market segments in significant ways. Customer service segments tend to be narrower (Davidow and Uttal, as cited in Yelkur and Herbig (1997).In addition, the narrower the segments, the more homogeneous they tend to be, making it easier to estimate consumer demand for each segment. Another factor that cannot be overlooked is the usage situation. Segmentation needs to take into account the what, where, how and why of demand. As demand is a result of the interaction of a person with the environment, a segmentation perspective that includes both the person and the situation is needed to explain the demand. In service industries such as hotels , distinct lines can be drawn, say, to divide different types of customers such as the vacationer or the business traveler.The usage situation thus gives the firm a guideline for customer service segmentation. Once customer segments are identified, the next step is to estimate the demand for each of these segments. Divide the target market into smaller customer service segments Steps for differential pricing Table II Product characteristics matrix for hotels Cost and frequency of purchase Relatively high cost Infrequently purchased Value proposition Intangible Service-related good Degree of differentiation Significant differentiation possible Source: Based on the Peterson et al. (1997) model [ 254 ]Customer demand can be estimated by a method suggested by Oren et al. (1984), which proposes that there are many customers in a target market, each with different characteristics summarized in an index, say, t, indicating customer type (based on the customer service type). Assuming that t here is a continuum of types with indices in the interval t0 t t1. The fraction of the population whose types are less than an index t is given by a distribution function H(t) (which forms the customer segment as described in the previous section) that is assumed to be continuous and strictly increasing. It implifies notation to let s = H(t) be this fraction so that t = H(s), and s is uniformly distributed on the interval 0 s 1. One can use s to denote a customer rank or customer type. Although this method is more suited to physical goods markets, it can be applied to service markets as well. In Estimate demand for each customer segment Rama Yelkur and Maria Manuela Neveda A DaCosta Differential pricing and segmentation on the Internet: the case of hotels Management Decision 39/4 [2001] 252 ±261 practice such estimations should be substantiated with both historical and estimated market data.Reservation price indicates the maximum amount a customer is willing to pay for a good or s ervice (Guiltinan, 1987). The reservation price of the customer indicates her willingness to pay and is the underlying benchmark for setting different prices for different customer segments. Classifying customers by the value they place on the service provides a rough estimate of the cost of satisfying them as well as the price they are willing to pay. Firms operating in service industries can use differential pricing only if they can estimate the distributions of the reservation prices.The amount by which the reservation price exceeds the actual price is the consumer surplus. The reservation price (Rp) would therefore depend on the value the customer places on the service (V) and the number of different firms offering the service (N). That is, Rp = f(V,N). The greater the number of firms offering the service, the lower will be the reservation price of the consumer. Whereas, if the customer has only a limited number of choices (substitutes), then her reservation price becomes higher ; that is her willingness to pay increases (her demand becomes more inelastic).The final price is determined for each customer segment based on customer type, location and product/service offering. Thus, though there is no change in marginal cost, different prices are charged depending on the type of customer segment and the reservation prices for each segment. Among the goods and services that are sold online, hotel services appear to be particularly well suited for differential pricing because of the ease of segmenting customers at a relatively low marginal cost. Determine reservation prices (which indicate willingness to pay) for each segmentRosen and Howard (2000) provides examples of improved transaction efficiency for service industries such as banking, travel, and stock brokerage. Table III illustrates the reduction in transaction costs for service firms because of delivery via the Internet. Traditional pricing strategies such as differential pricing, discussed in the previou s section, are particularly well suited to ecommerce. We will focus primarily on differential pricing for online services, also referred to as segmented pricing.A new and unique method of pricing called dynamic pricing, which is easily facilitated by the electronic medium, enhances differential pricing for online services. The Internet enables marketing managers to update product databases instantly and continuously, as new product features are developed and price adjustments are made (Strauss and Frost, 1999). Dynamic pricing allows Internet customers to receive up-todate price information on demand from product databases. This information changes with time and by user.For example business customers may receive different prices than individual customers. Business customers may receive different price information based on volume ordered. Thus, dynamic pricing allows further customization by target customer and further enhances the traditional segmented or differential pricing in the online environment. Determine prices for each segment Online presence of hotels Hotel services seem to be particularly suited to sale on the Internet. They can be delivered online and, once in place, benefit from tremendous economies of scale and scope.One firm can design a Web site and then just differentiate from locale to locale and from hotel to hotel at very low cost. In fact, the marginal cost of adding one more line to the Web site or another site for a new hotel is practically negligible. Despite these advantages, the hotel industry seems to have been relatively slow at â€Å"going digital† and using the Internet as a marketing tool. Hotel transactions in the USA account for less than 5 percent of the US total volume of e-business transactions. However, there is some indication that this is likely to increase significantly in the near future.Table IV shows that online travel business transactions increased from $2. 2 billion in 1998 to $6. 5 billion in 1999, a 200 pe rcent increase. Furthermore, when we disaggregate the total online travel bookings by travel product, it is interesting to note that lodging Pricing policies on the Internet E-commerce is likely to have a significant impact on pricing, as it creates a more competitive environment in which firms may sell. The Internet is able to generate different pricing mechanisms, particularly by allowing customers to make instant price and product comparisons.The Internet offers significant opportunity for reducing operating costs, particularly for service firms (Rosen and Howard, 2000). A study by Andersen Consulting (as cited in [ 255 ] Rama Yelkur and Maria Manuela Neveda A DaCosta Differential pricing and segmentation on the Internet: the case of hotels Management Decision 39/4 [2001] 252 ±261 increased from 13 percent in 1998 to 16 percent in 1999, a trend that is likely to continue. Table IV Total online travel bookings by travel product 1998 $2. 2 billion market (%) Air Lodging Car Cruis e/tour 80 13 7